Fear not! An earworm isn’t a physical worm inside your brain. They are parts of songs that play over and over in our heads. The term was created by the German “örhwurm” but scientists also call it “stuck tune syndrome” or “musical imagery repetition.” Studies have shown that most earworms share a few of the same traits. Songs usually have upbeat tempos, popular pitch patterns, and big leaps in notes. Neurologist and author, Dr. Sacks describes earworms as, “a special form of involuntary musical imagery which is out of control and can become quite unpleasant and intrusive” (The Kennedy Center).
While earworms are generally annoying, they are an effective way to retain information. For this reason, many companies use earworms to their advantage. Companies tend to create short, catchy jingles that are designed to get stuck in the heads of listeners. Some examples include McDonald’s’ “I’m loving it!” and Nationwide’s, “Nationwide is on your side.” This leads to consumers vividly remembering key information about the company. To utilize earworms whilst advertising, one must, “1. Commission a catchy jingle and use that jingle, unrelentingly, in all your ads. 2. Create a sonic signature or sign-off that you can use in your ads” (Wizard of Ads). This is why you may find yourself humming the jingles of various large corporations from time to time. So how has neuroscience allowed us to tangibly study earworms? Researchers at Dartmouth and the University of Cincinnati have studied the phenomenon. Using fMRI technology they have found neural substrates that support “unprompted auditory imaging.” An example of unprompted auditory imagery is all verbal cues, whether it be a lecture from your teacher or a song on the radio. These studies showed that the brain’s left primary auditory complex, the area of the brain responsible for hearing, was activated when music was played and when subjects were asked to remember a specific song. These experiments also suggested a correlation between the memory system and the auditory cortex. Earworms are commonly associated with phonological loops, “a short loop of recording tape that continuously stores a small amount of auditory information” (Burns). The auditory complex of the brain’s temporal lobe handles short-term memory. Phonological loops in the auditory complex store bits of information for a longer period of time than usual. The current hypothesis is that certain songs stimulate this response in the brain, but there is still a lot left to learn about this strange phenomenon. Scientists are still unsure about exactly what causes them. Earworms get their negative reputation because they’re so hard to eradicate. Usually, they go away on their own, but sometimes they can be particularly pestering. One strategy to help you avoid getting an earworm is to not listen to music with repetitive beats over and over. If you just can’t resist music like this and end up getting an earworm, there are a few ways to try and get rid of it. The most popular eradication method is to listen to the full song all the way to the end. Most of the time we get earworms because our brains get stuck in a loop. We sing a popular chorus but can’t seem to find our way out of it. This is called the Zeigarnik Effect; the brain works hard to remember unfinished tasks. Other common methods include chewing gum and walking to a different tempo than the song. These methods distract your brain by activating different parts. You again find yourself taking a walk outside on a beautiful day. Your music is blaring and the sun is out. Unlike before, when a song gets stuck in your head, you know all about it. You know that a phonological loop is replaying in your auditory complex and that the song lyrics are imprinted in your memory. To combat this, you replay and listen to the full song while changing your walking pace. Congratulations! You just overcame an earworm!
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Author: Yash Kilam
The idea that the gut microbiome affects our brain isn't relatively new, however the attention it has been getting from scientists has been renewed in the last 15 years. Researchers are beginning to reinforce the relationship between the gut microbiome and the brain through studies often involving mice. While questions do remain about how gut-brain communication occurs and whether it can be used for scientific and therapeutic purposes, many scientists claim that the gut-brain scientific field is still in its early days. Nevertheless, they are optimistic that they will find answers to these questions. The human gut houses trillions of microbes. Some of these microbes may be harmful and there to cause damage while others are part of our anatomy as they help our bodies in carrying out various tasks, such as digesting food. These "good microbes" take in nutrients and then pump out a raft of new chemicals. The gut microbiome is a diverse ecosystem of bacteria, viruses, and fungi. In exchange for raw materials and shelter, these microorganisms feed and protect their hosts. The microbiome's influence on our lives doesn't end there. Various studies have shown a connection between gut microbes and neurological conditions such as autism, epilepsy, and depression. As of now, researchers and scientists don't fully understand how the brain and the gut are linked but they suggest that understanding the mechanism which connects the two organs could one day lead to treatments for many neuropsychiatric disorders. One theory for how the gut microbiome interacts with the brain involves the bacteria releasing chemicals into the bloodstream which can have an affect on the brain. The CNS alters the intestinal environment by regulating gut motility and secretion as well as mucosal immunity through the neuronal-glial-epithelial axis and visceral nerves. External factors such as dietary habit, lifestyle, infection, and early microbial exposure, as well as internal factors such as genetics, metabolism, immunity, and hormones regulate the composition of the gut microbiome. Bacteria may respond to these changes by producing neurotransmitters or neuromodulators in the intestine, which circulate from the blood to the brain. These modulators may include bacteria derived choline, tryptophan, short-chain fatty acids, and intestinally released hormones which include ghrelin and leptin. Doctors have been wondering about the links between digestion and mental health since the 19th century. Inspired by Louis Pasteur, the famous scientist who speculated in 1885 that animals which lacked internal microbes to regulate bodily processes would die, European doctors began to investigate the significance of microbes in the digestive system. The doctors suggested that the toxins produced by microbes in the gut may be poisoning the minds of their patients. This area of study soon became very popular for a few decades before being discredited and untouched until recently. Scientists and researchers believe there is a lot of potential in the field and that continued research and experimentation could lead to the development of therapies and treatments for neurological disorders and diseases. Additionally, it’s incredibly appealing to think that, in the future, some minor adjustments to diet could help treat neurological diseases. For more articles like this, check out the Grey Matter Blog!
Author: Allison Peng
Innate vs learned fears Babies are only born with two innate fears: fear of loud sounds and fear of falling. In experiments by researchers as early as the 20th century, children are hesitant around perceived cliffs and vertical drops. Additionally, the acoustic startle reflex in children causes a flight or fight response. These instinctual fears act to protect young children and are necessary for survival so that they display caution and are alerted to danger. Most fears are learned, either by association or observing others around them. While some of these fears are more common (fear of snakes, spiders, etc), they rely on social cues from others to develop. In other cases, experiencing an unpleasant event in childhood, such as being bitten by a dog, can cause development of a fear by association. How do brains process fear? The initial component of fear processing is subconscious, which occurs primarily in the amygdala and includes the flight or fight response (physiological responses such as increased heart rate and adrenaline release). The other aspect of fear response occurs primarily in the cortex, and reasoning can determine whether or not the initial fear is justified. Additional parts of the brain involved in the fear response include the medial prefrontal cortex, ventral tegmental area, and the lateral septum. Irrational fears and how to overcome fear Intense irrational fears are less common in adults, beyond reasoning, and often do not overlap (meaning that someone who is afraid of holes is less likely to also be afraid of enclosed spaces). Additionally, they are often not based on specific experiences, such as a previous traumatic exposure. Phobias are associated with changes in brain performance, such as increased activity in the right amygdala and insular cortex, involved in emotional processing. Associated with phobias is increased expectation of phobia-inducing objects, including hypersensitivity to similar visual stimulus and expectancy bias. People who have irrational fears are also often unable to contextualize the extremely low odds of an event happening, such as a shark attack. People with phobias often display avoidant behavior, changing lifestyles to accommodate their fears. The best way to overcome fears is through exposure therapy, where you repeatedly expose yourself to fears slowly until the cognitive response is able to override emotional responses. By encountering phobia-inducing situations, you can condition yourself to learn that nothing bad is going to happen, and build confidence. Check out this document to learn more about fear!
By Varun Sridhar
MediMinds Co-Creator Whether it's watching mainstream media break down yet another controversial statement from President Trump, witnessing clips of police brutality, screaming at our phones while watching an Instagram video of a Karen in her element, or arguing with our siblings, there always seems to be some pent-up tension and frustration in the air. It’s apparent that our current social atmosphere thrives on creating anger and division within people. Although anger is one of the most ubiquitous emotions we feel, it is difficult to fully describe the experience. So what exactly is happening in our brain when we are angry, why are we so attracted to anger-inducing stimuli in the first place (especially on the Internet), and how can we effectively mitigate those emotions of frustration? Find out at http://mediminds.org/blog/f/the-underlying-brain-science-of-anger! Author: Allison Peng
What are BCIs, and how do they work? Brain-computer interfaces allow for humans to interact with machines in real time using brain waves. After brief training periods that associate brain signals with user intent, computers are able to determine user intent in different tasks using brain signal data. BCIs can be independent, where users only interact with machines with brain signals, or dependent, where some slight movements from the user, such as changing eye gaze direction.
Signaling methods and types of signals The most common signaling methods used with BCIs include EEG, ECoG, and MEG, which vary in spatial and temporal resolution, making them suited to different types of BCI.
EEG data can be analyzed for various types of signals, which help computers decode user intent. Many of these signals are sensory evoked potentials or event-related potentials, which are detailed below.
Uses of BCI Although widespread everyday use of BCI is not yet possible, due to interference, high numbers of artifacts, and variability, these are some goals for the development of brain-computer interfaces.
Check out this document to learn more about BCIs!
With more and more people experiencing increased loneliness and missing human interactions, such as seeing a friendly face, or receiving a comforting hug during times of crisis, it begs the question: what is the neurological basis of loneliness? How does social isolation affect well-being? And most importantly, how should we cope with changing situations to decrease negative effects of social isolation? Neurological Basis of Loneliness Fundamentally, as social animals, humans need social interaction. In the past, forming groups naturally helped our ancestors survive, providing increased protection and support. Even now, we naturally form communities with each other, and we experience loneliness when separated from others, both physically and emotionally. Many scientists perceive loneliness as a biological mechanism to motivate people to seek interaction, much like hunger or thirst. In fact, a preliminary study that was completed just before quarantine started by researchers from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology compared effects of hunger and loneliness and showed that they actually activate many of the same parts of the brain, and the pathways have many parallels. This leads to the conclusion that the need for human interaction is almost as fundamental as the need for food. In this study, 40 adults were subjected to 10 hours of food deprivation and 10 hours of social isolation. On the social isolation day, they were restricted from phones, laptops, and novels, but were allotted puzzles and nonfiction reading. On the food deprivation day, they were only allowed to drink water over the 10 hour timespan. At the end, their brains were scanned as they were shown pictures of foods, social interaction, and flowers (as a control). Using machine learning, they were able to compare the signals in the brain between both trials. In both trials, neurons in the substantia nigra, a region associated with motivation, brought about a strong dopaminergic response. Subjects only responded to what they were deprived of, and the patterns in both trials were very similar, concluding that social undernourishment is comparable to hunger. Similar to the body’s response to hunger, loneliness motivates people to seek interaction and human contact. Other studies support a similar conclusion, such as one conducted on mice using optogenetics, determined key regions involved in motivation and social isolation, including the dorsal raphe nucleus in the hindbrain. When genes were turned on in the region, allowing the mice to perceive loneliness, they would spend more time in areas close to new mice. Effects of Social Isolation on Health Loneliness is a natural feeling that everyone experiences at some point in their lives, whether it be from not being able to interact with others or from perceived social isolation by not fitting in. However, chronic loneliness has much more severe consequences, such as increased prevalence of mental health disorders, including depression, anxiety, and PTSD. Furthermore, loneliness has been found to increase stress levels, make people more susceptible to stroke and heart disease, and even increase likelihood of an earlier death by 26%. In a 2018 study by researchers at Thomas Jefferson University, mice removed from an enriched social environment and placed in solitary confinement for over a month experienced overall decreases in neuronal volume, deficits in motor control, and changes in learning and memory. In some parts of the brain, such as the motor cortex, changes were extreme, and some regions experienced decreases in nerve cell size by over 20%. It is unknown whether humans experience similar changes in brain structure. Additionally, chronic loneliness has been shown to cause increased hostility in people, and they tend to view things more negatively. Lonely people also tend to perceive more social threats, which can cause a self-perpetuating cycle. What can you do to help yourself?
No matter your situation, you can always take this time to connect with others, without breaking social distancing. During this time, many rely on social media for interactions; however, many studies have shown that prolonged time on social media can actually be damaging to mental health. This is because on these platforms, there are less opportunities to interact with others with social cues, such as smiles and gestures, like you would in normal life. As a result, people who spend a lot of time on social media sometimes perceive less overall positive interactions and signals than they would in real life. Alternatives to spending prolonged periods of time on social media that may be helpful in increasing social interaction include video calling, which allows people to perceive more social presence of others than in instant messaging, and participating in shared activities, such as hosting virtual parties, get-togethers, games, and competitions with friends. It is important to reach out to friends and family and stay connected during this time, which will have positive impacts on health and well-being. |